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Thursday, January 22, 2009

ka'bah

Kaaba
The Kaaba (Arabic: الكعبة al-Kaʿbah; IPA: ['kɑʕbɑ] or IPA: ['kæʕbæ])[1] "Cube" is a cuboidal building in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, and is the most sacred site in Islam.[2] The building is more than two thousand years old, and according to Islamic tradition the first building at the site was built by Abraham (Ibrahim). The building has a mosque built around it, the Masjid al-Haram. All Muslims around the world face towards the Kaaba during prayers, no matter where they are.

One of the Five Pillars of Islam requires every capable Muslim to perform the Hajj pilgrimage at least once in their lifetime. Multiple parts of the Hajj require pilgrims to walk several times around the Kaaba in a counter-clockwise direction (as viewed from above). This circumambulation, the Tawaf, is also performed by pilgrims during the Umrah (lesser pilgrimage).[2] However, the most dramatic times are during the Hajj, when two million pilgrims simultaneously gather to circle the building on the same day.

The Kaaba is covered by a black silk and gold curtain known as the kiswah, which is replaced yearly.[5][6] About two-thirds of the way up runs a band of gold-embroidered calligraphy with Qur'anic text, including the Islamic declaration of faith, the Shahadah.

Nowadays, entry to the Kaaba's interior is generally not permitted except for certain rare occasions and for a limited numbers of guests. The entrance is a door set 2 m (7 ft) above the ground on the north-eastern wall of the Kaaba, which acts as the façade.[2] There is a wooden staircase on wheels, usually stored in the mosque between the arch-shaped gate of Banū Shaybah and the well of Zamzam. Inside the Kaaba, there is a marble and limestone floor. The interior walls are clad with marble halfway to the roof; tablets with Qur'anic inscriptions are inset in the marble. The top part of the walls are covered with a green cloth decorated with gold embroidered Qur'anic verses. Caretakers perfume the marble cladding with scented oil, the same oil used to anoint the Black Stone outside.

There is also a semi-circular wall opposite, but unconnected to, the north-west wall of the Kaaba known as the hatīm. It is 90 cm (35 in) in height and 1.5 m (4.9 ft) in length, and is composed of white marble. The space between the hatīm and the Kaaba was for a time belonging to the Kaaba itself, and so is generally not entered during the tawaf (ritual circumambulation). It is also thought by some that this space bears the graves of Abu Simbel, prophet Ishmael and his mother Hagar.[2]

Muslims throughout the world face the Kaaba during prayers, which are five times a day. For most places around the world, coordinates for Mecca suffice. Worshippers in the the Sacred Mosque pray in concentric circles around the Kaaba.

Black Stone
Main article: Black Stone

The Black Stone is a significant feature of the Kaaba, believed by Muslims to date back to the time of Adam and Eve.[7] Located on the eastern corner of the Kaaba, it is about 30 cm (12 inches) in diameter and surrounded by a silver frame. Some Hajj pilgrims attempt to kiss the Stone as Muhammad once did.[8] Because of the large crowds, this is not always possible, and so as pilgrims walk around the Kaaba, they are to point to the Stone on each circuit.[9]

History
Before Islam

'King Fahad' gate of the Grand Masjid (Masjid al Haram) in Mecca.

'King Fahad' gate of the Grand Masjid at night in Mecca.

As little is known of the history of the Kaaba, there are various opinions regarding its formation and significance.

The early Arabian population consisted primarily of warring nomadic tribes. When they did converge peacefully, it was usually under the protection of religious practices.[10] Writing in the Encyclopedia of Islam, Wensinck identifies Mecca with a place called Macoraba mentioned by Ptolemy. His text is believed to date from the second century AD, before the rise of Islam,[11] and described it as a foundation in southern Arabia, built around a sanctuary. The area probably did not start becoming an area of religious pilgrimage until around the year AD 500. It was around then that the Quraysh tribe (into which Muhammad was later born) took control of it, and made an agreement with the local Kinana Bedouins for control.[12] The sanctuary itself, located in a barren valley surrounded by mountains, was probably built at the location of the water source today known as the Zamzam Well, an area of considerable religious significance.

Eiichi[13] contends that there were multiple such "Kaaba" sanctuaries in Arabia at one time, but this is the only one built of stone. The others also allegedly had counterparts to the Black Stone. There was a "red stone", the deity of the south Arabian city of Ghaiman, and the "white stone" in the Kaaba of al-Abalat (near the city of Tabala, south of Mecca). Grunebaum in Classical Islam points out that the experience of divinity of that time period was often associated with stone fetishes, mountains, special rock formations, or "trees of strange growth."[14]

According to Karen Armstrong, in her book Islam: A Short History, the Kaaba was dedicated to Hubal, a Nabatean deity, and contained 360 idols which either represented the days of the year,[15] or were effigies of the Arabian pantheon. Once a year, tribes from all around the Arabian peninsula, be they Christian or pagan, would converge on Mecca to perform the Hajj.

To keep the peace among the perpetually warring tribes, Mecca was declared a sanctuary where no violence was allowed within 20 miles (32 km) of the Kaaba. This combat-free zone allowed Mecca to thrive not only as a place of pilgrimage, but also as a trading center.[16] According to the Boston Globe, the Kaaba was a shrine for the Daughters of God (al-Lat, al-Uzza, and Manat) and Hubal.[17]

The Kaaba was thought to be at the center of the world with the Gate of Heaven directly above it. The Kaaba marked the location where the sacred world intersected with the profane, and the embedded Black Stone was a further symbol of this as a meteorite that had fallen from the sky and linked heaven and earth.[18]

According to Sarwar,[19] about four hundred years before the birth of Muhammad, a man named "Amr bin Lahyo bin Harath bin Amr ul-Qais bin Thalaba bin Azd bin Khalan bin Babalyun bin Saba", who was descended from Qahtan and king of Hijaz (the northwestern section of Saudi Arabia, which encompassed the cities of Mecca and Medina), had placed a Hubal idol onto the roof of the Kaaba, and this idol was one of the chief deities of the ruling Quraysh tribe. The idol was made of red agate, and shaped like a human, but with the right hand broken off and replaced with a golden hand. When the idol was moved inside the Kaaba, it had seven arrows in front of it, which were used for divination.[20]

Patricia Crone disagrees with most academic historians on most issues concerning the history of early Islam, including the history of the Kaaba. In Makkan Trade and the Rise of Islam, Crone writes that she believes that the identification of Macoraba with the Kaaba is false, and that Macoraba was a town in southern Arabia in what was then known as Arabia Felix.[21]

Many accounts[which?], including Muslim accounts, and some accounts written by academic historians, stress the power and importance of the pre-Islamic Mecca.[weasel words] They depict it as a city grown rich on the proceeds of the spice trade. Crone believes that this is an exaggeration and that Makkan may only have been an outpost trading with nomads for leather, cloth, and camel butter. Crone argues that if Mecca had been a well-known center of trade, it would have been mentioned by later authors such as Procopius, Nonnosus, and the Syrian church chroniclers writing in Syriac. However, the town is absent from any geographies or histories written in the last three centuries before the rise of Islam.[22]

According to The Encyclopaedia Britannica, "before the rise of Islam it was revered as a sacred sanctuary and was a site of pilgrimage."[23] According to the German historian Eduard Glaser, the name "Kaaba" may have been related to the southern Arabian or Ethiopian word "mikrab", signifying a temple.[11] Again, Crone disputes this etymology.

pengetahuan tentang colosseum ning roma.

Colosseum adalah sebuah peninggalan sejarah berupa gedung pertunjukan yang besar/amphitheatre yang termasuk salah satu dari “Tujuh Keajaiban Dunia Pertengahan.” Terletak di Ibukota Negara Italia, Roma, bernama asli “Flavian Amphitheatre”, didirikan oleh Raja Vespasian dan terselesaikan oleh anaknya Titus.

Mengenai tahun pembuatannya sampai saat ini masih ada perbedaan keyakinan. Ada yang berpendapat bahwa Colosseum dibuat pada tahun 79 SM , ada juga yang berpendapat bahwa dibuat antara tahun 70-82 M .Tapi, kebanyakan arkeolog berpendapat bahwa Colosseum dibuat pada tahun 70-82 M. Asal nama Colosseum berasal dari sebuah patung setinggi 130 kaki atau 40 m yang bernama Colossus. Colosseum di set untuk menampung 50.000 orang penonton.

Konstruksi bangunan

Rekonstruksi Colosseum dimulai dari perintah Raja Vespasian tahun 72 M dan terselesaikan oleh anaknya Titus pada tahun 80 M. Colosseum didirikan berdekatan dengan Nero’s enermous palace, Domus Aurea yang telah terbangun pada sesudah kebakaran besar di Roma pada tahun 64 M. Beberapa ahli sejarah percaya bahwa konstruksi dari Colosseum dibiayai dengan cara merampok kuil besar di Jerusalem oleh suruhan Raja Herod pada tahun 64 M. Dio Cassius seorang ahli sejarah mengatakan bahwa ada sekitar 9000 hewan buas yang telah terbunuh di 100 hari sebagai perayaan peresmian dan pembukaan Colosseum tersebut. Lantai dari arena Colosseum tertutupi oleh pasir untuk mencegah agar darah-darah tidak mengalir kemana-mana.

Pertunjukkan

Di Colosseum pada saat itu adalah tempat penyelenggaraan sebuah pertunjukan yang spektakuler, yaitu sebuah pertarungan antara binatang (venetaiones), pertarungan antara tahanan dan binatang, eksekusi tahanan (noxii), pertarungan air (naumachiae) dengan cara membanjiri arena, dan pertarungan antara gladiator (munera). Selama ratusan tahun itu, diperkirakan ribuan orang maupun binatang mati di pertunjukkan Colosseum.

Sejarah penamaan

Nama dari Colosseum seperti pada di atas diambil dari nama sebuah patung setinggi 130 kaki atau 40 m, Colossus. Patung Colossus dibuat ulang sebagai pengganti Nero sebagai perumpamaan dari Sol, dewa matahari, dengan menambahkan mahkota matahari. Di waktu pertengahan tahun, patung colossus telah menghilang. Seorang ahli mengatakan bahwa sejak patung itu terbuat dari tembaga, patung itu telah dileburkan untuk digunakan kembali.

Selain diambil dari nama colossus, Colosseum juga disebut sebagai Flavian Amphitheatre yang tidak diketahui siapa yang memberi nama itu. Di Itali, Colosseum diberi nama il colosseo tapi bahasa Roma lainnya menggunakan nama le colisée dan el coliseo untuk menyebutkan Colosseum.

Deskripsi

Colosseum berukuran cukup besar. Dengan tinggi 48 m, panjang 188 m, lebar 156 m dan luas seluruh bangunan sekitar 2.5 ha membuat Colosseum terlihat begitu besar dan luas. Arenanya terbuat dari kayu berukuran 86 m x 54 m, dan tertutup oleh pasir. Bentuk elips atau bulat dari Colosseum gunanya untuk mencegah para pemain untuk kabur ke arah sudut dan mencegah para penonton untuk berada lebih dekat dengan pertunjukan.

Colosseum merupakan hasil karya yang sangat hebat. Tempat itu dikatakan sebagai stadium yang hebat dan spektakuler dikarenakan oleh bentuk dan struktur dari Colosseum itu. Sampai sekarang pun, Colosseum masih dikatakan sebagai stadium yang hebat dan spektakuler. Tempat duduk di Colosseum dibagi menjadi tingkatan-tingkatan yang berbeda.

Podium, tempat paling pertama untuk duduk dikhususkan untuk para senator Roman. Ruang khusus bagi raja, tempat istirahatnya, tempat penyimpanan harta juga berada di tingkat ini. Dibawah podium adalah maeniaum primum, yang dikhususkan untuk para bangsawan Roman. Tingkat ketiga adalah maenianum primum yang dibagi-bagi lagi menjadi tiga bagian. Bagian paling bawah (immum) digunakan untuk para orang kaya, di bagian atasnya lagi (summum), digunakan untuk rakyat jelata. Dan yang terakhir, di bagian kayu (maenianum secundum in legneis) adalah tempat yang strukturnya dari kayu di paling atas bangunan. Tempat itu merupakan tempat untuk berdiri saja yang digunakan untuk para wanita rendahan.

Setelah 2 tahun Colosseum digunakan sebagai tempat pertunjukan, Anak termuda Vespasian memerintahkan untuk mengkonstruksikan area bawah tanah (hypogeum), dua tingkat jalur bawah tanah yang saling berhubungan berupa terowongan dan kurungan dimana para gladiator dan binatang ditempatkan sebelum pertarungannya dimulai. Disana juga disediakan jebakan-jebakan berupa pintu jebakan yang digunakan untuk mencegah masuknya hewan-hewan buas yang tidak direncanakan ke arena dan untuk menjaga tempat penyimpanan senjata didalam colosseum tersebut.

Sejarahnya kemudian

Pemandangan colosseum di malam hari

Colosseum masih digunakan sampai tahun 217, meskipun telah rusak kebakaran karena disambar petir. Colosseum telah diperbaiki di tahun 238 dan permainan gladiator berlanjut sampai umat kristen secara berangsur-angsur menghentikan permainan tersebut karena terlalu banyak memakan korban jiwa.

Bangunan tersebut digunakan untuk menyimpan berbagai macam jenis binatang sampai pada tahun ke 524. Dua gempa bumi di tahun 442 dan 508 menyebabkan kerusakan yang parah pada bangunan tersebut. Di Abad pertengahan, Colosseum mengalami kerusakan yang sangat parah yang disebabkan oleh gempa bumi lagi yakni pada tahun 847 dan 1349 dan dijadikan sebagai benteng dan sebuah gereja juga didirikan disana.

Banyak batu marmer digunakan untuk melapisi dan membangun kembali bagian-bagian Colosseum yang telah rusak karena terbakar. Pada abad 16 dan 17, keluarga-keluarga Roman menggunakan Colosseum sebagai tempat pengambilan batu marmer untuk konstruksi bangunan St. Peter’s Basilica dan kediaman khusus palazzi, keluarga Roman.

Di tahun 1749, ada sebuah bentuk dari pemeliharaan Colosseum. Paus Benediktus XIV melarang untuk menggunakan Colosseum sebagai tempat penambangan. Di tahun 2000 ada sebuah protes keras di Itali dalam rangka menentang penggunaan hukuman mati untuk negara-negara di seluruh dunia (di Italia, hukuman mati dihapuskan pada tahun 1948). Beberapa demonstran memakai tempat di depan Colosseum. Sejak saat itu, sebagai sebuah isyarat menentang hukum kapital tersebut, penduduk lokal mengganti warna Colosseum di malam hari dari putih menjadi emas dengan menggunakan penerangan berupa lilin dan lampu neon sampai pada saat dimana seluruh dunia menghapuskan tindakan penghukuman mati itu.


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